网站公告
点击问题反馈。微信登陆的用户请及时在个人中心设置登陆密码,并且牢记自己的用户名。
头像上传问题点击此处
逻辑和说理是一项基本的公民能力,说理的民主秩序与理性公民的高素质是相辅相成的

我一位朋友的孩子在上高中,准备到美国上大学,向我询问如何准备SAT(学术水平测验考试)写作考试。谈到说理文时,我特别提醒她,一定要顾及不同的观点,写作时要分析对方观点背后的理由,逻辑、说理地一一应对这些理由,方能证明自己观点合理。不顾及不同观点的说理文,得分都在5分制的3分以下。

对于美国高中生来说,这样的说理要求是他们从初中时就一直强调的。说理是双方对话,不是自说自话,必须以逻辑、说理为交流基础。美国学生一般11岁进初中一年级 (相当于中国的小学六年级),初中3年的英文课本中都有公共说理的部分。说理的内容反复出现,因为逻辑和说理是一项基本的公民能力。

美国公立学校的教育中,公共说理教育的准备其实从小学一年级就已经开始。《加州公立学校幼儿园至12年级阅读和语言艺术 (教学)纲要》对小学五个年级的“说理”有具体的要求。小学一年级:“重述简单说理和叙述段落中的主要观点。”二年级:“重述文本中的事实和细节,说清和组织要说的意见。”三年级:“在说理文中区别主要观点和支持这些观点的细节。”四年级:“区别说理文本中的‘原因’与‘结果’、‘事实’和‘看法’的区别。”五年级:“分辨文本中的‘事实’、‘得到证明的推论’和‘看法’(尚有待证明的观点)”。 这是首次提出“说理评估”的要求,初、高中阶段一直继续延用。

六年级的公共说理的重点在于区分“事实”和“看法”。“事实”是公认的知识,而“想法”只是个人的看法。任何“想法”都不具有自动的正确性,必须经过证明。证明也就是说服别人,清楚地告诉别人,为什么你的想法是正确的,理由是什么。

“客观事实”与“个人看法”之间有两种辨认方式。第一,“事实”的陈述是可以确认的,如“林肯是美国总统”。而“看法”的陈述则必须通过说理、讨论才能确认,如“林肯是一位伟大的总统”。第二,事实陈述使用那些具有可共同确认词义的字词,如“圆形”、“欧洲”、“木头”、“有毒物质”等等。而“看法”使用的字词是个人理解的,如“美好”、“丑陋”、“棒”、“爽”、“折腾”、“胡闹”。

七年级对学生“说理评估”能力的要求是:“评估作者在支持结论和立场时所用的论据是否适当、确切、相关,并注意有偏见和成见的例子。”其中注意“偏见”和“成见”是新要求,也是从形式逻辑向社会公正内容过渡。八年级要求的重点在“评估文本的统一性、连贯性、逻辑以及内部的一致性和结构”。

例如,八年级课本中收有美国作家爱伦·坡的一篇作品,同时附一篇含有说理谬误的评论,评论写道:“爱伦·坡的小说、诗歌写的全是心智不宁,甚至疯狂的人物。”教师会告诉学生:这里犯了“普遍泛论”的谬误,常见的泛论表述法包括“每个……”、“所有的……”、“大家都……”、“总是……”这一类用词。评论还写道:“自己精神没有问题的作家是写不出这种故事的,不然爱伦·坡又如何能体会什么是疯狂。”这里犯的是“虚假对立”的逻辑谬误(要么“疯”,要么“不疯”)。其实,作家写疯子可以运用想象,不一定自己非要是疯子不可。评论再写道:“我们知道,作家都有些怪,特别是那些写恐怖故事的作家。”“我们知道”类似“毋庸置疑”、“众所周知……”犯的是“本来就有问题”的逻辑谬误,因为“所知道”的恰恰是有待证明的。

高中对学生的“说理评估”能力要求比初中有所提高。高中分两个阶段。第一个阶段:九到十年级,“说理评估”要求是在说理中必须有对方意识。说理文写作除了形式逻辑,还要讲究结构逻辑(例如,文章不同部分的顺序、逻辑过渡),能够预先估计和避免读者可能会有的误解。此外,还要求学生正确理解对方的话,不望文生义,不曲解,不断章取义。

高中第二阶段是十一到十二年级。这个阶段的“说理评估”对象是“公共文件”(public documents),如政府的文告、政策说明、政党文宣,公共服务部门的宗旨、规章、条例、商贸和招聘信息等等。一切发表了的东西,只要议及公共话题,都是公共文本,也都必须接受公众的“说理评估”。

在美国学校里,从高小到初中、高中,有一个不断持续的说理教育过程,从小学四年级算起,光必修课就有9年,可见培养说理的习惯不容易。尤其重要的是初中3年,这个时期的学生,教育可塑性最强,有自然的好奇心和求知欲,而且能很快将学到的知识吸纳并转化成为习惯。说理的民主秩序与理性公民的高素质是相辅相成的。美国之所以能有比较高的公民素质、国民独立思考能力和公民社会理性,重视说理教育应该是一个重要的原因。

顺带呼吁坛主,设一个关于“批判性思维培养”的分栏目,可以让家长们专门讨论此话题

评分查看全部评分

参与人数 1 贝壳 +30 理由 收起
qinbaoba + 30 很给力!
教育观点
1879 查看 17 收藏帖子 (15)

说说我的看法高级模式

您需要登录后才可以回帖 登录|新会员加入

  • qinbaoba

    2014-4-14 11:34:56 使用道具

    对这个题目很感兴趣
  • davidlx

    楼主 2014-4-14 11:35:59 使用道具

    谢谢 赚贝壳了
  • davidlx

    楼主 2014-4-14 11:40:57 使用道具

    说老实话,按照美国关于”批判性思维“的教育标准衡量,这里很多一把年纪的人还不如人家的初中生。但也没办法,放眼望去,我们的课本和媒体,充斥着反逻辑、反思考的东西
  • high5

    2014-4-14 12:58:49 使用道具

    不知道作者的说理教育指的是什么?

    《加州公立学校幼儿园至12年级阅读和语言艺术 (教学)纲要》的原文在
    http://www.cde.ca.gov/be/st/ss/documents/elacontentstnds.pdf

    SAT的写作部分,作者写道:
    “一定要顾及不同的观点,写作时要分析对方观点背后的理由,逻辑、说理地一一应对这些理由,方能证明自己观点合理。不顾及不同观点的说理文,得分都在5分制的3分以下。”

    而SAT 的写作不是5分制
    SAT写作,我印象中不是别人给你一个观点,而是需要自己呈现一个观点,然后用2-3个论据来support 自己的观点。
  • high5

    2014-4-14 13:01:50 使用道具

    davidlx 发表于 2014-4-14 11:40
    说老实话,按照美国关于”批判性思维“的教育标准衡量,这里很多一把年纪的人还不如人家的初中生。但也没办 ...

    请教美国”批判性思维“的教育标准 是什么?
  • davidlx

    楼主 2014-4-14 13:59:42 使用道具

    文中关于每个阶段的学生该掌握的批判性思维的知识,以此作为标准
  • high5

    2014-4-15 03:17:46 使用道具

    对照转的帖子和加州language art 的标准看了一下,想原作者的说理文,大概是英文中的expository Essay, 中文中一般翻译是说明文。

    关于expository Essay, youtube 上有一个说的听明白挺容易懂的7分半钟的视频
    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YpCzBdWdpTs

    解释了什么是expository Essay


    以及expository Essay 包含的种类


    expository Essay 说明文在语文中是有教的吧,只不过没有这么细致。
  • high5

    2014-4-15 03:31:34 使用道具

    再把加州的language art 大纲中作者提到的相关部分提出来放在这里,以便于更好的了解和理解吧。 这部分是
    Reading 中的Reading Comprehension。 说白了,就是美国人是如何教孩子阅读理解的, 或者说,为了孩子能更好的理解各种文体,需要掌握哪些技能技巧。

    小学部分
    G1
    Students read and understand grade-level-appropriate material. They draw upon a
    variety of comprehension strategies as needed (e.g., generating and responding to
    essential questions, making predictions, comparing information from several sources).
    The selections in Recommended Literature, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve illustrate the
    quality and complexity of the materials to be read by students. In addition to their
    regular school reading, by grade four, students read one-half million words annually,
    including a good representation of grade-level-appropriate narrative and expository text
    (e.g., classic and contemporary literature, magazines, newspapers, online information).
    In grade one, students begin to make progress toward this goal.


    Structural Features of Informational Materials
    2.1         Identify text that uses sequence or other logical order.
    Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text
    2.2         Respond to who, what, when, where, and how questions.
    2.3         Follow one-step written instructions.
    2.4         Use context to resolve ambiguities about word and sentence meanings.
    2.5         Confirm predictions about what will happen next in a text by identifying key words
    (i.e., signpost words).
    2.6         Relate prior knowledge to textual information.
    2.7         Retell the central ideas of simple expository or narrative passages.

    -------------------------
    G2
    Structural Features of Informational Materials
    2.1         Use titles, tables of contents, and chapter headings to locate information in expository
    text.
    Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text
    2.2         State the purpose in reading (i.e., tell what information is sought).
    2.3         Use knowledge of the author’s purpose(s) to comprehend informational text.
    2.4         Ask clarifying questions about essential textual elements of exposition (e.g., why, what if,
    how).
    2.5         Restate facts and details in the text to clarify and organize ideas.
    2.6         Recognize cause-and-effect relationships in a text.
    2.7         Interpret information from diagrams, charts, and graphs.
    2.8         Follow two-step written instructions.


    -----------------------------

    G3
    Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text
    2.2         Ask questions and support answers by connecting prior knowledge with literal
    information found in, and inferred from, the text.
    2.3         Demonstrate comprehension by identifying answers in the text.
    2.4         Recall major points in the text and make and modify predictions about forthcoming
    information.
    2.5         Distinguish the main idea and supporting details in expository text.
    2.6         Extract appropriate and significant information from the text, including problems and
    solutions.
    2.7         Follow simple multiple-step written instructions (e.g., how to assemble a product
    or play a board game).

    ------------------------------

    G4
    Structural Features of Informational Materials
    2.1         Identify structural patterns found in informational text (e.g., compare and contrast, cause
    and effect, sequential or chronological order, proposition and support) to strengthen
    comprehension.
    Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text
    2.2         Use appropriate strategies when reading for different purposes (e.g., full comprehension,
    location of information, personal enjoyment).
    2.3         Make and confirm predictions about text by using prior knowledge and ideas presented
    in the text itself, including illustrations, titles, topic sentences, important words, and
    foreshadowing clues.
    2.4         Evaluate new information and hypotheses by testing them against known information
    and ideas.
    2.5         Compare and contrast information on the same topic after reading several passages or
    articles.
    2.6         Distinguish between cause and effect and between fact and opinion in expository text.
    2.7         Follow multiple-step instructions in a basic technical manual (e.g., how to use computer
    commands or video games).

    --------------------------------


    G5
    Structural Features of Informational Materials
    2.1Understand how text features (e.g., format, graphics, sequence, diagrams, illustrations,
    charts, maps) make information accessible and usable.
    2.2         Analyze text that is organized in sequential or chronological order
    2.3         Discern main ideas and concepts presented in texts, identifying and assessing evidence
    that supports those ideas.
    2.4         Draw inferences, conclusions, or generalizations about text and support them with
    textual evidence and prior knowledge.
    Expository Critique
    2.5         Distinguish facts, supported inferences, and opinions in text.



  • high5

    2014-4-15 03:35:02 使用道具

    初中部分

    G6
    Structural Features of Informational Materials
    2.1         Identify the structural features of popular media (e.g., newspapers, magazines, online
    information) and use the features to obtain information.
    2.2         Analyze text that uses the compare-and-contrast organizational pattern.
    Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text
    2.3         Connect and clarify main ideas by identifying their relationships to other sources and
    related topics.
    2.4         Clarify an understanding of texts by creating outlines, logical notes, summaries, or reports.
    2.5         Follow multiple-step instructions for preparing applications (e.g., for a public library card,
    bank savings account, sports club, league membership).
    Expository Critique
    2.6         Determine the adequacy and appropriateness of the evidence for an author’s conclusions.
    2.7         Make reasonable assertions about a text through accurate, supporting citations.
    2.8         Note instances of unsupported inferences, fallacious reasoning, persuasion, and propa-
    ganda in text.



    G7
    Structural Features of Informational Materials
    2.1         Understand and analyze the differences in structure and purpose between various
    categories of informational materials (e.g., textbooks, newspapers, instructional manuals,
    signs).
    2.2         Locate information by using a variety of consumer, workplace, and public documents.
    2.3         Analyze text that uses the cause-and-effect organizational pattern.
    Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text
    2.4         Identify and trace the development of an author’s argument, point of view, or perspec-
    tive in text.
    2.5         Understand and explain the use of a simple mechanical device by following technical
    directions.
    Expository Critique
    2.6         Assess the adequacy, accuracy, and appropriateness of the author’s evidence to support
    claims and assertions, noting instances of bias and stereotyping.



    G8
    Structural Features of Informational Materials
    2.1Compare and contrast the features and elements of consumer materials to gain meaning
    from documents (e.g., warranties, contracts, product information, instruction manuals).
    2.2         Analyze text that uses proposition and support patterns.
    Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text
    2.3         Find similarities and differences between texts in the treatment, scope, or organization of
    ideas.
    2.4         Compare the original text to a summary to determine whether the summary accurately
    captures the main ideas, includes critical details, and conveys the underlying meaning.
    2.5         Understand and explain the use of a complex mechanical device by following technical
    directions.
    2.6         Use information from a variety of consumer, workplace, and public documents to
    explain a situation or decision and to solve a problem.
    Expository Critique
    2.7         Evaluate the unity, coherence, logic, internal consistency, and structural patterns of text.


  • high5

    2014-4-15 03:50:06 使用道具

    高中部分:

    G9-10
    Structural Features of Informational Materials
    2.1         Analyze the structure and format of functional workplace documents, including
    the graphics and headers, and explain how authors use the features to achieve their
    purposes.
    2.2         Prepare a bibliography of reference materials for a report using a variety of consumer,
    workplace, and public documents.

    Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text
    2.3         Generate relevant questions about readings on issues that can be researched.
    2.4         Synthesize the content from several sources or works by a single author dealing with a
    single issue; paraphrase the ideas and connect them to other sources and related topics to
    demonstrate comprehension.
    2.5         Extend ideas presented in primary or secondary sources through original analysis,
    evaluation, and elaboration.
    2.6         Demonstrate use of sophisticated learning tools by following technical directions
    (e.g., those found with graphic calculators and specialized software programs and
    in access guides to World Wide Web sites on the Internet).

    Expository Critique
    2.7         Critique the logic of functional documents by examining the sequence of information and
    procedures in anticipation of possible reader misunderstandings.
    2.8         Evaluate the credibility of an author’s argument or defense of a claim by critiquing the
    relationship between generalizations and evidence, the comprehensiveness of evidence,
    and the way in which the author’s intent affects the structure and tone of the text
    (e.g., in professional journals, editorials, political speeches, primary source material).




    G11-12
    Structural Features of Informational Materials
    2.1         Analyze both the features and the rhetorical devices of different types of public docu-
    ments (e.g., policy statements, speeches, debates, platforms) and the way in which
    authors use those features and devices.

    Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text
    2.2         Analyze the way in which clarity of meaning is affected by the patterns of organization,
    hierarchical structures, repetition of the main ideas, syntax, and word choice in the text.
    2.3         Verify and clarify facts presented in other types of expository texts by using a variety of
    consumer, workplace, and public documents.
    2.4         Make warranted and reasonable assertions about the author’s arguments by using
    elements of the text to defend and clarify interpretations.
    2.5         Analyze an author’s implicit and explicit philosophical assumptions and beliefs about a
    subject.

    Expository Critique
    2.6         Critique the power, validity, and truthfulness of arguments set forth in public docu-
    ments; their appeal to both friendly and hostile audiences; and the extent to which the
    arguments anticipate and address reader concerns and counterclaims (e.g., appeal to
    reason, to authority, to pathos and emotion).



  • davidlx

    楼主 2014-4-23 12:16:38 使用道具

    说理是讲道理,大概和我们中学练习的议论文差不多,只不过我们学的太肤浅,而且水平上差距也很大,涉及到议论文中最核心的部分-逻辑,几乎很少学习-估计现在大学毕业生能准确清晰的讲出几种逻辑谬误的人不多吧。放眼主流媒体和我们从小学习的课本,典型的逻辑谬误比比皆是,目不忍睹。
  • carolliu

    2018-1-19 07:34:41 使用道具

    谢谢分享!
  • westjourney

    2018-1-27 13:46:16 使用道具

    请看思维魔方板块。不过讨论的人不多。
  • weiwei_jo

    2018-7-12 11:22:07 使用道具

    感谢分享!!!
  • 凡妈2011

    2019-1-9 15:24:05 使用道具

    说理性教育,今天头一次听说,好像我们从来没有这样的教育理念,只是在和别人吵架和辩论时候才会锻炼到的教育!希望我们也多培养这个方面!呼吁大家都多重视起来!
  • xihua

    2019-1-9 21:45:23 使用道具

    对题目很感兴趣,内容非常棒
  • davidlx

    楼主 2019-5-25 00:02:31 使用道具

    xihua 发表于 2019-1-9 21:45
    对题目很感兴趣,内容非常棒

    Thanks!